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1 reduced-order control
1) Автоматика: упрощённое управляющее устройство, упрощённое управление (напр. на базе постоянною ЗУ)2) Макаров: упрощённое управление (напр., на базе постоянного ЗУ) -
2 reduced-order control
1) упрощённое управление (напр. на базе постоянного ЗУ)English-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > reduced-order control
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3 reduced order control
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4 control
1) управление; регулирование || управлять; регулировать2) контроль || контролировать3) управляющее устройство; устройство управления; регулятор4) профессиональное мастерство, квалификация, техническая квалификация5) pl органы управления•"in control" — "в поле допуска" ( о результатах измерения)
to control closed loop — управлять в замкнутой системе; регулировать в замкнутой системе
- 2-handed controlsto control open loop — управлять в разомкнутой системе; регулировать в разомкнутой системе
- 32-bit CPU control
- acceptance control
- access control
- acknowledge control
- active process control
- adaptable control
- adaptive constraint control
- adaptive control for optimization
- adaptive control
- adaptive feed rate control
- adaptive quality control
- adjustable feed control
- adjustable rotary control
- adjustable speed control
- adjusting control
- adjustment control
- AI control
- air logic control
- analog data distribution and control
- analogical control
- analytical control
- application control
- arrows-on-curves control
- autodepth control
- autofeed control
- automated control of a document management system
- automated technical control
- automatic backlash control
- automatic control
- automatic editing control
- automatic gain control
- automatic gripper control
- automatic level control
- automatic process closed loop control
- automatic remote control
- automatic sensitivity control
- automatic sequence control
- automatic speed control
- automatic stability controls
- auxiliaries control
- balanced controls
- band width control
- bang-bang control
- bang-bang-off control
- basic CNC control
- batch control
- bibliographic control
- bin level control
- boost control
- built-in control
- button control
- cam control
- cam throttle control
- camshaft control
- carriage control
- Cartesian path control
- Cartesian space control
- cascade control
- C-axis spindle control
- cell control
- center control
- central control
- central supervisory control
- centralized control
- centralized electronic control
- central-station control
- changeover control
- chip control
- circumferential register control
- close control
- closed cycle control
- closed loop control
- closed loop machine control
- closed loop manual control
- closed loop numerical control
- closed loop position control
- clutch control
- CNC control
- CNC indexer control
- CNC programmable control
- CNC symbolic conversational control
- CNC/CRT control
- CNC/MDI control
- coarse control
- coded current control
- coded current remote control
- color control
- combination control
- command-line control
- compensatory control
- composition control
- compound control
- computed-current control
- computed-torque control
- computer control
- computer numerical control
- computer process control
- computer-aided measurement and control
- computer-integrated manufacturing control
- computerized control
- computerized numerical control
- computerized process control
- constant surface speed control
- constant value control
- contactless control
- contact-sensing control
- contamination control
- continuous control
- continuous path control
- continuous process control
- contour profile control
- contouring control
- conventional hardware control
- conventional numerical control
- conventional tape control
- convergent control
- conversational control
- conversational MDI control
- coordinate positioning control
- coordinate programmable control
- copymill control
- counter control
- crossed controls
- current control
- cycle control
- dash control
- data link control
- data storage control
- deadman's handle controls
- depth control
- derivative control
- dial-in control
- differential control
- differential gaging control
- differential gain control
- differential temperature control
- digital brushless servo control
- digital control
- digital position control
- digital readout controls
- dimensional control
- direct computer control
- direct control
- direct digital control
- direct numerical control
- direction control
- directional control
- dirt control
- discontinuous control
- discrete control
- discrete event control
- discrete logic controls
- dispatching control
- displacement control
- distance control
- distant control
- distributed control
- distributed numerical control
- distributed zone control
- distribution control
- dog control
- drum control
- dual control
- dual-mode control
- duplex control
- dust control
- dynamic control
- eccentric control
- edge position control
- EDP control
- electrical control
- electrofluidic control
- electromagnetic control
- electronic control
- electronic level control
- electronic speed control
- electronic swivel control
- elevating control
- emergency control
- end-point control
- engineering change control
- engineering control
- entity control
- environmental control
- error control
- error plus error-rate control
- error-free control
- external beam control
- factory-floor control
- false control
- feed control
- feed drive controls
- feedback control
- feed-forward control
- field control
- fine control
- finger-tip control
- firm-wired numerical control
- fixed control
- fixed-feature control
- fixture-and-tool control
- flexible-body control
- floating control
- flow control
- fluid flow control
- follow-up control
- foot pedal control
- force adaptive control
- forecasting compensatory control
- fork control
- four quadrant control
- freely programmable CNC control
- frequency control
- FROG control
- full computer control
- full order control
- full spindle control
- gage measurement control
- gain control
- ganged control
- gap control
- gear control
- generative numerical control
- generic path control
- geometric adaptive control
- graphic numerical control
- group control
- grouped control
- guidance control
- hairbreath control
- hand control
- hand feed control
- hand wheel control
- hand-held controls
- handle-type control
- hand-operated controls
- hardened computer control
- hardwared control
- hardwared numerical control
- heating control
- heterarchical control
- hierarchical control
- high-integrity control
- high-level robot control
- high-low control
- high-low level control
- high-technology control
- horizontal directional control
- humidity control
- hybrid control
- hydraulic control
- I/O control
- immediate postprocess control
- inching control
- in-cycle control
- independent control
- indexer control
- indirect control
- individual control
- industrial processing control
- industrial-style controls
- infinite control
- infinite speed control
- in-process control
- in-process size control
- in-process size diameters control
- input/output control
- integral CNC control
- integral control
- integrated control
- intelligent control
- interacting control
- interconnected controls
- interlinking control
- inventory control
- job control
- jogging control
- joint control
- joystick control
- just-in-time control
- language-based control
- laser health hazards control
- latching control
- lead control
- learning control
- lever control
- lever-operated control
- line motion control
- linear control
- linear path control
- linearity control
- load control
- load-frequency control
- local control
- local-area control
- logic control
- lubricating oil level control
- machine control
- machine programming control
- machine shop control
- macro control
- magnetic control
- magnetic tape control
- main computer control
- malfunction control
- management control
- manual control
- manual data input control
- manual stop control
- manually actuatable controls
- manufacturing change control
- manufacturing control
- master control
- material flow control
- MDI control
- measured response control
- mechanical control
- memory NC control
- memory-type control
- metering control
- metrological control of production field
- microbased control
- microcomputer CNC control
- microcomputer numerical control
- microcomputer-based sequence control
- microprocessor control
- microprocessor numerical control
- microprogrammed control
- microprogramming control
- milling control
- model reference adaptive control
- model-based control
- moisture control
- motion control
- motor control
- motor speed control
- mouse-driven control
- movable control
- multicircuit control
- multidiameter control
- multilevel control
- multimachine tool control
- multiple control
- multiple-processor control
- multiposition control
- multistep control
- multivariable control
- narrow-band proportional control
- navigation control
- NC control
- neural network adaptive control
- noise control
- noncorresponding control
- noninteracting control
- noninterfacing control
- nonreversable control
- nonsimultaneous control
- numerical contouring control
- numerical control
- numerical program control
- odd control
- off-line control
- oligarchical control
- on-board control
- one-axis point-to-point control
- one-dimensional point-to-point control
- on-line control
- on-off control
- open loop control
- open loop manual control
- open loop numerical control
- open-architecture control
- operating control
- operational control
- operator control
- optical pattern tracing control
- optimal control
- optimalizing control
- optimizing control
- oral numerical control
- organoleptic control
- overall control
- overheat control
- override control
- p. b. control
- palm control
- parameter adaptive control
- parameter adjustment control
- partial d.o.f. control
- path control
- pattern control
- pattern tracing control
- PC control
- PC-based control
- peg board control
- pendant control
- pendant-actuated control
- pendant-mounted control
- performance control
- photoelectric control
- physical alignment control
- PIC control
- PID control
- plugboard control
- plug-in control
- pneumatic control
- point-to-point control
- pose-to-pose control
- position/contouring numerical control
- position/force control
- positional control
- positioning control
- positive control
- postprocess quality control
- power adaptive control
- power control
- power feed control
- power-assisted control
- powered control
- power-operated control
- precision control
- predictor control
- preselective control
- preset control
- presetting control
- pressbutton control
- pressure control
- preview control
- process control
- process quality control
- production activity control
- production control
- production result control
- programmable adaptive control
- programmable cam control
- programmable control
- programmable logic adaptive control
- programmable logic control
- programmable machine control
- programmable microprocessor control
- programmable numerical control
- programmable sequence control
- proportional plus derivative control
- proportional plus floating control
- proportional plus integral control
- prototype control
- pulse control
- pulse duration control
- punched-tape control
- purpose-built control
- pushbutton control
- quality control
- radio remote control
- radium control
- rail-elevating control
- ram stroke control
- ram-positioning control
- rapid-traverse controls for the heads
- rate control
- ratio control
- reactive control
- real-time control
- reduced-order control
- register control
- registration control
- relay control
- relay-contactor control
- remote control
- remote program control
- remote switching control
- remote valve control
- remote-dispatch control
- resistance control
- resolved motion rate control
- retarded control
- reversal control
- revolution control
- rigid-body control
- robot control
- robot perimeter control
- robot teach control
- rod control
- safety control
- sampled-data control
- sampling control
- schedule control
- SCR's control
- second derivative control
- selective control
- selectivity control
- self-acting control
- self-adaptive control
- self-adjusting control
- self-aligning control
- self-operated control
- self-optimizing control
- self-programming microprocessor control
- semi-automatic control
- sensitivity control
- sensor-based control
- sequence control
- sequence-type control
- sequential control
- series-parallel control
- servo control
- servo speed control
- servomotor control
- servo-operated control
- set value control
- shaft speed control
- shape control
- shift control
- shop control
- shower and high-pressure oil temperature control
- shut off control
- sight control
- sign control
- single variable control
- single-flank control
- single-lever control
- size control
- slide control
- smooth control
- software-based NC control
- softwared numerical control
- solid-state logic control
- space-follow-up control
- speed control
- stabilizing control
- stable control
- standalone control
- start controls
- static control
- station control
- statistical quality control
- steering control
- step-by-step control
- stepless control
- stepped control
- stick control
- stock control
- stop controls
- stop-point control
- storage assignment control
- straight cut control
- straight line control
- stroke control
- stroke length control
- supervisor production control
- supervisory control
- swarf control
- switch control
- symbolic control
- synchronous data link control
- table control
- tap-depth controls
- tape control
- tape loop control
- teach controls
- temperature control
- temperature-humidity air control
- template control
- tension control
- test control
- thermal control
- thermostatic control
- three-axis contouring control
- three-axis point-to-point control
- three-axis tape control
- three-mode control
- three-position control
- throttle control
- thumbwheel control
- time control
- time cycle control
- time optimal control
- time variable control
- time-critical control
- time-proportional control
- timing control
- token-passing access control
- tool life control
- tool run-time control
- torque control
- total quality control
- touch-panel NC control
- touch-screen control
- tracer control
- tracer numerical control
- trajectory control
- triac control
- trip-dog control
- TRS/rate control
- tuning control
- turnstile control
- two-axis contouring control
- two-axis point-to-point control
- two-dimension control
- two-hand controls
- two-position control
- two-position differential gap control
- two-step control
- undamped control
- user-adjustable override controls
- user-programmable NC control
- variable flow control
- variable speed control
- variety control
- varying voltage control
- velocity-based look-ahead control
- vise control
- vision responsive control
- visual control
- vocabulary control
- vocal CNC control
- vocal numerical control
- voltage control
- warehouse control
- washdown control
- water-supply control
- welding control
- wheel control
- wide-band control
- zero set control
- zoned track controlEnglish-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > control
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5 control
1. управление; регулирование; управляемость; стабилизация/ управлять; регулировать2. управляющее устройство; регулятор; орган управления, средство управления; рычаг управления; поверхность управления, руль3. <pl> система управления; система регулирования4. управляющее воздействие, управление; отклонение органа управления; перемещение рычага управления5. контроль6. подавление <напр. колебаний>; предотвращениесм. тж. control,control in the pitch axis4-D controlacceleration controladaptable controladaptive controlaerodynamic controlaeroelastic controlaileron controlair traffic controlairborne controlaircraft controlairspeed controlall-mechanical controlsantispin controlsapproach controlarea controlarrival controlattitude controlaugmented controlsautopilot controlbang-bang controlbank-to-turn controlbimodal controlboundary layer controlbounded controlBTT controlbuoyancy controlbus controlCG controlcable controlcable-operated controlscamber controlcaptain`s controlscenter-of-gravity controlchattering controlclearance controlclosed-loop controlclosed-loop controlscockpit controlcockpit controlscollective controlcollective-pitch controlcolocated controlcompensatory controlconfiguration controlcontinuous controlcooperative controlcoordinated controlscorrosion controlcross controlscrowd controlcruise camber controlcyclic controlcyclic pitch controldamper-induced controldamping controldecentralized controldecoupled controldeformable controlsdeformation controldescent controldifferential controldigital controldirect force controldirect lateral force controldirect lift controldirect lift controlsdirect sideforce controldirect sideforce controlsdirectional controldirectional attitude controldirectional flight path controldiscontinuous controldiscrete controldisplacement controldistributed controldivergence controldrag controldual controlelastic mode controlelectrical signalled controlelevator controlen route air traffic controlengine controlserror controlevader controlFBW controlsfeedback controlfighter controlfinal controlfine controlfinger-on-glass controlfingertip controlfinite-time controlfixed-wing controlflap controlFlettner controlflight controlflight controlsflight path controlflow controlfluidic controlflutter controlflutter mode controlfly-by-glass controlfly-by-light controlsfly-by-wire controlsflying controlflying controlsforce controlforce sensitive controlforce sensitive controlsforebody controlsfountain controlfracture controlfriend/foe controlfuel controlfuel distribution controlfuel efficient controlfuel feed controlfull controlfull nose-down controlfull nose-down to full nose-up controlfull-authority controlfull-authority controlsfull-state controlfull-time fly-by-wire controlgain-scheduled controlglide path controlglideslope controlground-based controlharmonized controlshead-out controlhead-up controlheading controlheld controlshierarchical controlhigh-alpha controlhigh-angle-of-attack controlhigh-bandpass controlhigh-bandwidth controlhigh-speed controlhigher harmonic controlhigher harmonic controlshighly augmented controlsHOTAS controlshover mode controlhovering controlhydromechanical controlin-flight controlindividual blade controlindividual flap cruise camber controlinfra-red emissions controlinner-loop controlinput controlinput/output controlintegral controlintegrated controlinteractive controlsintercom/comms controlsirreversible controljet reaction controlkeyboard controlkeyboard controlsknowledge-based controllaminar flow controllateral controllateral-directional controlleading-edge controlsleft controlLiapunov optimal controllinear quadratic Gaussian controllinear quadratic regulator controlload factor controllongitudinal controllongitudinal cyclic controllow-bandwidth controllow-speed controlLQG controlLyapunov optimal controlmaneuver controlmaneuver camber controlmaneuver load controlmaneuvering controlmanual controlmass-flow controlmicroprocessor based controlMIMO controlminimax optimal controlminimum time controlminimum variance controlmisapplied controlsmission-critical controlmixing controlmodal controlmode controlsmodel-following controlmotion controlmultiaxis controlmultiple model controlmultiple-axis controlmultiple-input/multiple-output controlmultisurface controlmultivariable controlneutral controlsnoise controlnoninertial controlnonlinear feedback controlnonunique controlnose-down controlnose-down pitch controlopen-loop controlopen-loop controlsoptimal controlouter-loop controloxygen controlsperformance seeking controlperiodic controlperturbational controlpilot controlpilot-induced oscillation prone controlpiloting controlpiloting controlspitch controlpitch plane controlpitch-recovery controlpneumatic controlpneumodynamic controlpointing controlpositive controlpost stall controlpower controlpowered controlpredictive controlpressurization controlpreview controlpro-spin controlspropeller controlpropeller controlsproportional plus integral controlpropulsion controlspropulsion system controlspursuer controlpursuit controlradio controlsrate controlrate controlsratio-type controlsreaction controlreconfigurable controlsrecovery controlrecovery controlsreduced order controlrelay controlremote pilot controlresponsive controlrestructurable controlreverse controlreversed controlride controlrigid body controlrobust controlroll controlroll attitude controlroll-axis controlrotational controlrotor controlrudder controlrudder controlsrudder-only controlsea controlself-tuning controlsequence controlservo controlservo-flap controlservo-flap controlsshock controlshock wave/boundary layer controlshort period response controlsideforce controlsidestick controlsidestick controlssight controlssignature controlsingle-axis controlsingle-engine controlsingle-lever controlsingular perturbation optimal controlsix degree-of-freedom controlslew controlslewing controlsliding mode controlssmoothed controlsnap-through controlsoftware-intensive flight controlsspace structure controlstation keeping controlstepsize controlstiffness control of structurestochastic controlstructural controlstructural mode controlsuboptimal controlsuction boundary layer controlsuperaugmented controlswashplate controlsweep controlsystems controltactical controlstail controltail rotor controltailplane controltask-oriented controltask-tailored controltaxying controlterminal controlthin controlthree-surface controlthrottle controlthrust controlthrust magnitude controltight controltilt controltime-of-arrival controltime-optimal controltime/fuel optimal controltip clearance controlto regain controltorque controltorque controlstrailing-edge controlstransient controltranslational controltri-surface controltrim controlturn coordination controlupfront controlupward-tilted controlvariable structure controlvectorial controlvehicular controlvelocity controlvertical controlvibration controlvoice actuated controlsvortex controlvortex manipulation controlvortex-lift controlwing-mounted controlsyaw control -
6 model
1. модель; макет; образец; эталон/ модельный/ моделировать2. модель; вариант; типactuator modelactuator disk modeladvanced development modelaerodynamic modelaeroelastic modelaeroelastically scaled modelair combat modelairplane modelairplane-like modelapproach modelarrow-wing modelatmospheric modelautopilot modelautorotation modelautothrottle modelBaldwin-Lomax modelbasic modelbeam modelbeam/lumped mass modelbiomorphic modelblowing modelbody alone modelbreadboard modelcable-mounted modelcargo load modelCFD modelcombustion modelcombustion-flow modelcommand modelcompensatory modelcomposite modelcompressibility modified modelcomputer modelcone-cylinder modelcone-finned modelconical-flow modelconsistent modelconstant amplitude fatigue modelconstitutive modelcontinuous-mass modelcontinuum modelcontroller modelcorrelation modelcounter-rotation modelcrack modelcrack growth modelcrack growth retardation modelcrossover modelcumulative damage modeldamage accumulation modeldamper modeldatabase modeldeterministic modeldevelopment-type modeldifferential-game modeldiscrete modeldistributed lift modeldisturbance modeldowndraft modeldrop modelDryden modelDugdale modeldynamically scaled modeldynamics modelenergy-conservation modelengagement modelengine modelengineering development modelerror modelfailure modelfatigue modelfilament modelfine grid modelfinite element modelfixed-base modelfixed-wing modelflow modelflutter modelflutter-suppression modelfour-input/four-output modelfractional derivative modelfracture modelfree to roll modelfree-flight modelfree-flying modelfree-spinning modelfreely flying modelfrequency-domain modelfull modelfull-order modelfull-span modelfull-span wing modelgame modelgeneric modelgeometric modelgeometrically scaled modelgravity modelgravity anomaly modelgust modelhalf-plane modelhalf-wing modelhigh-fineness-ratio modelhuman operator modelidentified modelilluminated modelinfinite-blade modelinput modelinstrumented modelinverse modelisolated wing modelk-e modelk-W modelkinematic modelkinetic modellarge-scale modellead-lag pilot modellead-only pilot modellinear modellongitudinal modellower-order modellumped parameter modellumped-mass modelMach-scaled modelmagnetically suspended modelmass-and-spring modelmass-spring modelMaxwell modelmembrane and rod modelmeteorological modelmicromechanical modelMiner-Palmgren damage modelminimum phase modelmissile modelmodal modelmomentum-conserved modelmoving modelmultiaxis modelmultidegree of freedom modelmultiloop modelmultiscale modelneuromuscular modelobservation modelover-parameterized modelparabolized Navier-Stokes modelpendulation modelperformance modelperturbation modelphenomenological modelphysical modelpilot-aircraft modelpilot-vehicle modelpiston modelpitch modelpitch-plunge modelpitch-lateral-directional modelplant modelplastic modelpneumodynamic modelpowered modelpowered-lift modelprecision modelprediction modelpreview modelproduction modelproperly parameterized modelpropfan modelpropulsion modelpure gain pilot modelquantized modelquasi-static modelR&M modelradar modelradial spring modelradio control modelradio controlled modelreal-world modelreduced order modelreference modelreflectivity modelreingestion modelreplica modelreplica-type modelrocket-propelled modelroll modelrotor-body modelrotorcraft modelscale modelscaled modelscattering modelself-consistent modelsemiempirical modelsemispan modelsemispan wing modelsensitivity modelsimulation modelsingle-axis modelsingle-body modelsingle-rotation modelspectrum fatigue modelspray modelstall modelstate modelstate space modelstatistical modelstiffness modelstochastic modelstress modelstructural modelstudy modelsupersonic cruise modeltask modelterrain modelthin-jet modelthree-degree-of-a-freedom modelthree-state modelthrust modeltire modeltransfer-function modeltransparent modeltruth modeltunnel-supported modelturbulence modeltwin-body modeltwo layer turbulence modeltwo-control modeltwo-degrees-of-freedom modeltwo-equation turbulence modelunquantized modeluntuned modelusage modelV/STOL modelvaporization modelvehicle stability modelvertical dynamic modelvestibular modelviscous/inviscid modelvisual cueing modelwake modelwake/wing modelwater tunnel modelWheeler retardation modelwind-tunnel modelwindshear modelwing-canard modelwing-rotor modelwireframe modelyaw model -
7 design
1. проект; конструкция; схема <ЛА>/ проектный2. проектирование; разработка; конструирование; синтез/ проектировать; разрабатывать; конструировать; синтезировать3. расчет/ рассчитывать/ расчетныйсм. тж. design"clean-sheet-of-paper" designdesign for low vibrationdesign for supportabilitydesign to constraintsdesign to costaerodynamic designaerodynamically unstable designaircraft designairfoil designall-altitude designall-wing designamphibious designanalytical designarrow-wing designattached-flow designaugmentation designautopilot designavionics designbalanced designbaseline designbearingless designcanard designcockpit designcompensator designcomputerized designconceptual designconfiguration designconstrained designcontrol designcontrol augmentation designcontrol law designcontroller designcrew station designCTOL designdamage tolerant designdecoupled designdelta-wing designdelta-winged designdetail designdetailed designdisplay designdouble-scoop designdurability designelastic designfail-safe designfallback designfatigue designfeedback designfeedback loop designfighter designfilter designfinal production designfixed gain designfixed-sweep designflutter designflying knife designflying-wing designfracture mechanics designfrequency domain designfull-state designfull-scale designfully-stressed designhandling-qualities designhigh-tail designhigh-wing designhydrodynamic designin-house designinelastic designinlet designinput designiterative designjoined-wing designlaminate designland based designlanding gear designlayout designleast-mass designLyapunov designlift-plus-cruise designlinear regulator designlogic designlogistics designlong-nosed designlongitudinal designlow-boom designlow-cost designlow-wing designLQG/LTR designLQR designmacro-structural designmicro-structural designminimum weight designmultiple-input-multiple-output designnonrobust designoblique-wing designobserver designobserver-based designoptimum designoutboard-pivot designpitch designpodded designpoint designpowered-lift designpreliminary designpropeller designRALS designreduced order designreliability-conscious designrobust designroll-yaw designrotorcraft designsensitivity-reduction designshape optimal designsingle-finned designsingle-seat designstealth designSTOVL designstrengthened designstructural designsupport-conscious designswing-wing designsystem designT-tail designtail-aft designtail-first designtandem-wing designthermoelastic designthree-shaft designthree-surface designto design intorsional designtwin-boom designtwin-pod designtwo-shaft designtwo-spool designunconstrained designundercarriage designvortex-flow designVTOL designwashin designwashout designwheel designwide-body designWiener-Hopf designwing-winglet design -
8 compensation
1. компенсация; коррекция, поправка2. уравновешивание, балансировкаcontrol system compensationDLC compensationerror compensationfeedback compensationfeedforward compensationgravity compensationinertial coupling compensationintegral compensationlag compensationMach trim compensationmoment compensationopen-loop compensationphase compensationpilot-phase compensationpilot`s loop compensationproportional compensationproportional and integral compensationpure gain pilot compensationreduced-order compensationtorque compensation -
9 compensator
компенсатор; корректирующее устройство; регуляторautomatic power compensatorband-limited compensatorcommand shaping compensatordecoupling compensatorelevon compensatorfeedback compensatorfeedback control law compensatorfeedforward compensatorflap-up trim compensatorlag compensatorlinear compensatorLQG compensatorLQR/LTR compensatorMIMO compensatorpitch compensatorpole-assignment compensatorreduced order compensatorrobust compensator -
10 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
11 system
system of axes3-component LDV system3-D LDV system4-D system4-D flight-management system4-D guidance systemAC electrical systemactuation systemaerial delivery systemaerostat systemAEW systemafterburning control systemAI-based expert systemaileron-to-rudder systemair bleed offtake systemair cushion systemair cycle systemair data systemair defence systemair induction systemair refueling systemair traffic control systemair-combat advisory systemair-conditioning systemair-path axis systemair-turbine starting systemairborne early warning systemaircooling systemaircraft reference axis systemaircraft weight-and-balance measuring systemaircraft-autopilot systemaircraft-based systemaircraft-bifilar-pendulum systemaircraft-carried earth axis systemaircraft-carried normal earth axis systemaircrew escape systemairfield lighting control systemairframe/rotor systemairspeed systemalcohol-wash systemalignment control systemall-electronic systemall-weather mission systemaltitude loss warning systemangle-of-attack command systemanti-collision systemanti-g systemantitorque systemanti-icing systemantiskid systemarea-navigation systemARI systemartificial feel systemartificial intelligence-based expert systemartificially augmented flight control systemATC systemattitude and heading reference systemaudio systemaudiovisual systemauto-diagnosis systemauto-hover systemautolanding systemautomatic cambering systemautomatic trim systemautostabilization systemautotrim systemaxis systemB systembalance-fixed coordinate systembase-excited systembasic axis systembeam-foundation systembifilar pendulum suspension systembladder systemblowing systemblowing boundary layer control systemblown flap systembody axis systembody axis coordinate systembody-fitted coordinate systembody-fixed reference systemboom systemboosted flight control systembraking systembreathing systembuddy-buddy refuelling systemcabin pressurization systemcable-mount systemCAD systemcanopy's jettison systemcardiovascular systemcargo loading systemcargo-handling systemcarrier catapult systemcartesian axis systemCat III systemcentral nervous systemCGI systemcirculating oil systemclosed cooling systemclosed-loop systemcockpit systemcockpit management systemcollision avoidance systemcombined cooling systemcommand-by-voice systemcommand/vehicle systemcommercial air transportation systemcompensatory systemcomputer-aided design systemcomputer-assisted systemcomputer-generated image systemcomputer-generated visual systemconcentrated-mass systemconflict-alert systemconservative systemconstant bandwidth systemconstant gain systemconsultative expert systemcontrol systemcontrol augmented systemcontrol loader systemcooling systemcoordinate systemcounterstealth systemcoupled systemcoupled fire and flight-control systemcovert mission systemcrew systemscueing systemcurvilinear coordinate systemdamped systemdata systemdata acquisition systemdata handling systemdata transfer systemdata-gathering systemDC electrical systemdecision support systemdefensive avionics systemdeicing systemdemisting systemdeparture prevention systemdeterministic systemdual-dual redundant system4-D navigation system6-DOF motion systemdiagnosable systemdial-a-flap systemdirect impingement starting systemdisplacement control systemdisplay systemdisplay-augmented systemdivergent systemDLC systemdogfight systemdoor-to-door systemDoppler ground velocity systemdouble-balance systemdrive systemdrive train/rotor systemdry air refueling systemdual-field-of-view systemdual-wing systemdynamic systemearly-warning systemEarth-centered coordinate systemearth-fixed axis systemearth/sky/horizon projector systemejection systemejection display systemejection seat escape systemejection sequence systemejector exhaust systemejector lift systemelection safety systemelectric starting systemelectro-expulsive deicing systemelectro-impulse deicing systemelectro-vibratory deicing systemelectronic flight instrumentation systemElint systememergency power systememitter locator systemEMP-protected systemengine monitoring systemengine-propeller systemengine-related systemenhanced lift systemenvelope-limiting systemenvironmental control systemescape systemexcessive pitch attitude warning systemexhaust systemFADEC systemfault-tolerant systemFBW systemfeathering systemfeedback systemfeel systemfin axis systemfire detection systemfire suppression systemfire-extinguishing systemfire-protection systemfive-point restraint systemfixed-structure control systemflap systemflap/slat systemflash-protection systemflexible manufacturing systemflight control systemflight control actuation systemflight director systemflight inspection systemflight management systemflight path systemflight path axis systemflight test systemflight-test instrumentation systemflotation systemfluid anti-icing systemflutter control systemflutter margin augmentation systemflutter suppression systemfluttering systemfly-by-light systemfly-by-light control systemfly-by-wire systemfly-by-wire/power-by-wire control systemfoolproof systemforce-excited systemforce-feel systemforward vision augmentation systemfuel conservative guidance systemfuel management systemfuel transfer systemfull-vectoring systemfull-authority digital engine control systemfull-motion systemfull-state systemfull-time systemfully articulated rotor systemfuselage axis systemg-command systemg-cueing systemg-limiting systemgas generator control systemgas turbine starting systemglobal positioning systemgoverning systemground collision avoidance systemground proximity warning systemground-axes systemground-fixed coordinate systemground-referenced navigation systemgust alleviation systemgust control systemgyroscopic systemgyroscopically coupled systemhalon fire-extinguishing systemhalon gas fire-fighting systemhands-off systemhead-aimed systemheadup guidance systemhelmet pointing systemhelmet-mounted visual systemhierarchical systemhigh-damping systemhigh-authority systemhigh-lift systemhigh-order systemhigh-pay-off systemhigh-resolution systemhigher harmonic control systemhose-reel systemhot-gas anti-icing systemhub plane axis systemhub plane reference axis systemhub-fixed coordinate systemhydraulic systemhydraulic starting systemhydropneumatic systemhydrostatic motion systemhysteretic systemice-protection systemicing cloud spray systemicing-protection systemidentification friend or foe systemimage generator systemin-flight entertainment systemincidence limiting systeminert gas generating systeminertial coordinate systeminertial navigation systeminertial reference systeminfinite-dimensional systeminformation management systeminlet boundary layer control systeminlet control systeminput systeminstruction systeminstrument landing systeminstrumentation systemintelligence systemintelligent systeminterconnection systemintermediate axis systemintrusion alarm systemintrusion detection systeminverted fuel systemlanding guidance systemlarge-travel motion systemlaser-based visual systemlateral attitude control systemlateral control systemlateral feel systemlateral seat restraint systemlateral-directional stability and command augmentation systemlead compensated systemleft-handed coordinate systemleg restraint systemlife support systemliferaft deployment systemlift-distribution control systemlighter-than-air systemlightly damped systemlightning protection systemlightning sensor systemlightning warning systemlimited-envelope flight control systemlinear vibrating systemliquid oxygen systemload control systemload indication systemlocal-horizon systemloom systemlow-damping systemlow-order systemLQG controlled systemlubrication systemlumped parameter systemMach number systemmain transmission systemmaintenance diagnostic systemmaintenance record systemman-in-the-loop systemman-machine systemmaneuver demand systemmaneuvering attack systemmass-spring-dashpot systemmass-spring-damper systemmast-mounted sight systemmechanical-hydraulic flight control systemmicrowave landing systemMIMO systemmine-sweeping systemmissile systemmissile-fixed systemmission-planning systemmobile aircraft arresting systemmodal cancellation systemmodal suppression systemmode-decoupling systemmodel reference systemmodel-based visual systemmodel-following systemmodelboard systemmolecular sieve oxygen generation systemmonopulse systemmotion systemmotion generation systemmulti-input single-output systemmulti-input, multi-output systemmultimode systemmultibody systemmultidegree-of-freedom systemmultiloop systemmultiple-input single output systemmultiple-input, multiple-output systemmultiple-loop systemmultiple-redundant systemmultiply supported systemmultishock systemmultivariable systemnavigation management systemnavigation/attack systemnavigation/bomb systemNDT systemneuromuscular systemnight/dusk visual systemportable aircraft arresting systemnitrogen inerting systemno-tail-rotor systemnonminimum phase systemnonoscillatory systemnonconservative systemnormal earth-fixed axis systemNotar systemnozzle control systemnuclear-hardened systemobserver-based systemobstacle warning systemoil systemon-board inert gas generation systemon-board maintenance systemon-board oxygen generating systemon-off systemone degree of freedom systemone-shot lubrication systemopen cooling systemopen seat escape systemopen-loop systemoperability systemoptic-based control systemoptimally controlled systemorthogonal axis systemoxygen generation systemparachute systempartial vectoring systempartial vibrating systemperformance-seeking systemperturbed systempilot reveille systempilot vision systempilot-aircraft systempilot-aircraft-task systempilot-in-the-loop systempilot-manipulator systempilot-plus-airplane systempilot-vehicle-task systempilot-warning systempilot/vehicle systempitch change systempitch compensation systempitch stability and command augmentation systempitch rate systempitch rate command systempitch rate flight control systempneumatic deicing systempneumatic ice-protection systempneumodynamic systemposition hold systempower systempower-assisted systempower-boosted systempowered high-lift systempowered-lift systemprecognitive systempressurization systempreview systemprobabilistically diagnosable systemprobe refuelling systempronated escape systempropeller-fixed coordinate systempropulsive lift systemproximity warning systempursuit systempush-rod control systemquantized systemrandom systemrating systemreconfigurable systemrectangular coordinate systemreduced-gain systemreference axis systemrefuelling systemremote augmentor lift systemremote combustion systemresponse-feedback systemrestart systemrestraint systemrestructurable control systemretraction systemride-control systemride-quality systemride-quality augmentation systemride-smoothing systemright-handed axis systemright-handed coordinate systemrigid body systemrobotic refueling systemrod-mass systemroll augmentation systemroll rate command systemrotating systemrotor systemrotor isolation systemrotor-body systemrotor-wing lift systemroute planner systemrudder trim systemrudder-augmentation systemsampled-data systemscheduling systemschlieren systemsea-based systemseat restraint systemseatback video systemself-adjoint systemself-contained starting systemself-diagnosable systemself-excited systemself-repairing systemself-sealing fuel systemself-tuning systemshadow-mask systemshadowgraph systemship-fixed coordinate systemshock systemshort-closed oil systemsighting systemsimulation systemsimulator-based learning systemsingle degree of freedom systemsingle-input multiple-output systemsingularly perturbed systemsituational awareness systemsix-axis motion systemsix-degree-of-freedom motion systemsix-puck brake systemski-and-wheel systemskid-to-turn systemsnapping systemsoft mounting systemsoft ride systemsound systemspeed-stability systemspherical coordinate systemspin recovery systemspin-prevention systemspring-mass-dashpot systemstability and control augmentation systemstability augmentation systemstability axis coordinate systemstability enhancement systemstall detection systemstall inhibitor systemstall protection systemstall warning systemstarting systemstealth systemstochastic systemstorage and retrieval systemstore alignment systemstores management systemstrap-down inertial systemstructural systemstructural-mode compensation systemstructural-mode control systemstructural-mode suppression systemSTT systemsuppression systemsuspension systemtactile sensory systemtail clearance control systemtail warning systemtask-tailored systemterrain-aided navigation systemterrain-referencing systemtest systemthermal control systemthermal protection systemthreat-warning systemthree-axis augmentation systemthree-body tethered systemthree-control systemthree-gyro systemthrough-the-canopy escape systemthrust modulation systemthrust-vectoring systemtilt-fold-rotor systemtime-invariant systemtime-varying systemtip-path-plane coordinate systemtorque command/limiting systemtractor rocket systemtrailing cone static pressure systemtraining systemtrajectory guidance systemtranslation rate command systemtranslational acceleration control systemtrim systemtrim tank systemtriple-load-path systemtutoring systemtwin-dome systemtwo degree of freedom systemtwo-body systemtwo-input systemtwo-input two-output systemtwo-pod systemtwo-shock systemtwo-step shock absorber systemunpowered flap systemunpowered high-lift systemutility services management systemvapor cycle cooling systemvariable feel systemvariable stability systemvariable structure systemvestibular sensory systemvibrating systemvibration isolation systemvibration-control systemvibration-damping systemvideo-disc-based visual systemvisor projection systemvisual systemvisual display systemvisual flying rules systemvisual sensory systemvisual simulation systemvisually coupled systemvoice-activated systemvortex systemvortex attenuating systemVTOL control systemwake-imaging systemwarning systemwater injection cooling systemwater-mist systemwater-mist spray systemweather systemwheel steering systemwide angle visual systemwind coordinate systemwind shear systemwind-axes systemwind-axes coordinate systemwind-fixed coordinate systemwing axis systemwing flap systemwing sweep systemwing-load-alleviation systemwing-mounted systemwing/propulsion systemwiring systemyaw vane system -
12 unit
организационная единица; боевая единица (напр. корабль, ЛА танк); подразделение; часть; соединение; расчетно-снабженческая единица; секция; орган; элемент; комплект; агрегат; установка; см. тж. elementbulk petrol (transport) unit — Бр. часть [подразделение] подвоза наливного (бестарного) горючего
counter C3 unit — часть [подразделение] подавления системы оперативного управления и связи
Fleet Marine (Corps) reconnaissance unit — разведывательное подразделение [часть] флотских сил МП
multisensor (AA) firing unit 3PK — с приборным комплексом из нескольких систем обнаружения и сопровождения
photo (graphic) reconnaissance unit — фоторазведывательная часть [подразделение]
surface-launched unit, fuel air explosive — установка дистанционного разминирования объемным взрывом
surface-launched unit, mine — установка дистанционного минирования
tactical (air) control unit — часть [подразделение] управления ТА
war (time) strength (TOE) unit — часть, укомплектованная по штатам военного времени
— air unit— ASA unit— BM unit— border operation unit— car unit— depot support unit— dry unit— EW unit— GM unit— host country unit— HQ unit— logistics support unit— manpack radio unit— marksmanship training unit— mechanized infantry unit— missile-armed unit— nuclear weapon unit— provisional unit— QM unit— Rangers unit— supported unit— TOE unit— transportation unit— truck transport unit— van unit— wet unit* * *1) часть; 2) единица -
13 system
1) система; комплекс2) совокупность•- absolutely consistent system - absolutely direct indecomposable system - absolutely free system - absolutely irreducible system - absolutely isolated system - allowable coordinate system - almost linear system - ample linear system - artificial feel system - automatic block system - automatic deicing system - binary relational system - binary-coded decimal system - block tooling system - Cartesian coordinate system - completely controllable system - completely ergodic system - completely hyperbolic system - completely identifiable system - completely integrable system - completely irreducible system - completely regular system - completely stable system - completely stratified system - complex number system - conical coordinate system - derivational formal system - differential equation system - differential selsyn system - digital counting system - digital transmission system - elliptic coordinate system - elliptic cylindrical coordinate system - externally inconsistent system - finite state system - finitely axiomatizable system - finitely presented system - fully characteristic quotient system - fundamental system of solutions - hydraulic lift system - integrated switching system - isomorphically embedded system - kernel normal system - linearly dependent system - linearly independent system - live hydraulic system - locking protection system - meteor-burst communication system - modular programming system - parabolic cylindrical coordinate system - permanent four-wheel drive system - pure independent system - radio telephone system - reactor protection system - real number system - receiver-amplifier crioelectric system - remote-cylinder hydraulic system - semantically consistent system - simply consistent system - simply incomplete system - simply ordered system - spherical coordinate system - strongly multiplicative system - structurally stable system - sufficiently general coordinate system - system of frequency curves - system of rational numbers - time multiplex system - time-division multiplex system - uniformly complete system - univalent system of notation - universal system of notation - weakly closed system - weighted number system -
14 charge
1. n нагрузка, загрузка2. n зарядstatic charge — электростатический заряд; статический заряд
3. n сигарета с марихуаной4. n приятное волнение, возбуждение; наслаждение, удовольствие5. n запись о выдаче книг, абонементная записьto take in charge — арестовать, взять под стражу
6. n геральд. фигура7. n тех. шихта8. n метал. колоша9. n тех. горючая смесь10. n горн. заряд шпура11. v нагружать, загружать12. v обременять13. v насыщать; наполнять; пропитывать, пронизывать14. v наполнять15. v заряжать16. v поручать, вверять; вменять в обязанность; возлагать ответственностьtook charge of — взял ответственность; брал ответственность
17. v предписывать, приказывать; требовать; предлагатьthe watchmen were charged to remain at their posts — караульным было приказано оставаться на своих постах
18. v юр. обвинять; выдвигать или предъявлять обвинениеthe crimes charged against them — преступления, в которых они обвинялись
19. v вменять в вину; возлагать ответственность; приписывать20. v назначать, запрашивать цену, плату; взиматьcharge these goods to me — запишите эту покупку на мой счёт; счёт за покупку пришлите мне
21. v воен. атаковать22. v нападать, атаковать, набрасываться; напирать, наседать23. v газироватьзаписывать выдачу книг, делать абонементную запись
24. v наводить, нацеливать25. v юр. напутствовать присяжных заседателей26. v геральд. изображать на щитеСинонимический ряд:1. accusation (noun) accusation; allegation; complaint; crimination; denouncement; denunciation; imputation; incrimination; indictment; reproach2. assault (noun) assault; attack; encounter; invasion; onset; onslaught; outbreak; rush3. cost (noun) amount; assessment; cost; encumbrance; expense; fee; liability; price; price tag; rate; tab; tariff; toll4. duty (noun) commission; commitment; committal; devoir; duty; employment; imperative; must; need; obligation; office; ought; part; responsibility5. fee (noun) exaction; fee; toll6. instruction (noun) admonition; behest; bidding; command; commandment; dictate; direction; directive; exhortation; injunction; instruction; mandate; order; requirement; word7. load (noun) burden; cargo; deadweight; freight; load; millstone; onus; payload; task; tax; weight8. oversight (noun) care; conduct; control; custody; guardianship; handling; intendance; keeping; management; oversight; running; superintendence; superintendency; supervision; surveillance; trust9. ward (noun) dependant; dependent; subject; ward10. accuse (verb) accuse; arraign; blame; censure; cite; criminate; denounce; denunciate; impeach; incriminate; inculpate; indict11. appoint (verb) appoint; authorize; commission; delegate12. ascribe (verb) accredit; ascribe; assign; attribute; credit; impute; lay; refer13. attack (verb) assail; assault; attack; dash; invade; lunge; set on; storm14. bind (verb) bind; commit; obligate; pledge15. burden (verb) arm; burden; choke; clog; cram; cumber; encumber; fill; freight; heap; lade; load; lumber; pack; pile; saddle; task; tax; weigh; weigh down; weight16. command (verb) bid; command; demand; dictate; direct; enjoin; exhort; instruct; order; require; tell; warn17. permeate (verb) compenetrate; impenetrate; impregnate; interfuse; interpenetrate; penetrate; percolate; permeate; pervade; saturate; suffuse; transfuse18. rush (verb) boil; bolt; chase; fling; lash; race; rush; shoot; tear19. sell for (verb) assess; debit; exact; figure; impose; levy; price; sell for20. trust (verb) entrust; trustАнтонимический ряд:acquittal; exonerate; retreat; withdraw -
15 price
1. noun1) (the amount of money for which a thing is or can be bought or sold; the cost: The price of the book was $10.) precio2) (what one must give up or suffer in order to gain something: Loss of freedom is often the price of success.) precio
2. verb1) (to mark a price on: I haven't priced these articles yet.) poner/marcar el precio (de)2) (to find out the price of: He went into the furniture shop to price the beds.) informarse del precio (de)•- pricey
- at a price
- beyond/without price
price n preciowhat is the price of this car? ¿qué precio tiene este coche?tr[praɪs]■ what's the price of this jacket? ¿qué precio tiene esta chaqueta?2 figurative use (cost, sacrifice) precio\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLat a price a un precio caroat any price a toda costa, cueste lo que cueste, a cualquier precionot at any price por nada del mundoto go down in price bajar de precioto go up in price subir de precioto pay a high price for something pagar algo muy caro,-ato price oneself out of the market perder clientes por poner precios muy altosprice control control nombre masculino de preciosprice list lista de preciosprice reduction descuento, rebajaprice tag etiquetaset price precio fijoprice n: precio mpeace at any price: la paz a toda costan.• costa s.f.• coste s.m.• costo s.m.• cotización s.f.• curso s.m.• importe s.m.• precio s.m.v.• fijar el precio de v.• tarifar v.• tasar v.• valorar v.
I praɪs1) (Busn, Fin) precio m; ( of stocks) cotización f, precio mthey're the same price — valen or cuestan lo mismo
at a price of £80 — por 80 libras
accommodation is available, at o for a price — es posible encontrar alojamiento, pero sale or cuesta caro
to go up/down in price — subir/bajar de precio
I'll take the job, if the price is right — aceptaré el trabajo si (me) pagan bien; (before n)
price list — lista f de precios
price rise — subida f or (RPl tb) suba f de precios
2) (cost, sacrifice) precio mthey want peace at any price — quieren la paz cueste lo que cueste or a toda costa
not at any price! — de ningún modo!, por nada del mundo!
what price peace? — ¿va a ser posible lograr la paz?
to pay a/the price for something — pagar* caro algo
that's a small price to pay for independence — bien vale la pena ese sacrificio para ser independiente
3) ( value) (liter) precio mit's beyond o without price — no tiene precio, es invalorable
II
a) ( fix price of) (often pass)it was originally priced at over $300 — su precio original era de más de 300 dólares
they have priced themselves out of the market — han subido tanto los precios que se han quedado sin compradores (or clientes etc)
b) ( mark price on) ponerle* el precio a[praɪs]1. N1) (Comm) precio mthat's my price, take it or leave it — eso es lo que pido, o lo tomas o lo dejas
•
you can get it at a price — se puede conseguir, pero pagandoat a reduced price — a (un) precio reducido, con rebaja
•
it is beyond price — no tiene precio•
for a price, he'll do it for a price — él lo hará, pero será caro, lo hará si le paganhe would kill a man for the price of a packet of cigarettes — mataría a un hombre por el precio de una cajetilla de tabaco
two for the price of one — (lit, fig) dos al or por el precio de uno
•
can you give me a price for putting in a new window? — ¿cuánto me cobraría usted por colocar una ventana nueva?•
he got a good price for it — sacó una buena suma por ello•
everyone has their price — todos tenemos un precio•
to name one's price — fijar el precio, decir cuánto se quiere•
to put a price on sth — poner precio a algo•
if the price is right, he is prepared to make a comeback if the price is right — está dispuesto a volver si se le paga bienas long as the price is right, property will sell — si está a un buen precio, la propiedad se vende
closing 2., cut-price, fixed 2., half-price, retail 5.•
what price all his promises now? — iro ¿de qué sirven todas sus promesas ahora?2) (Econ, St Ex) (=quotation) cotización f3) (Betting) (=odds) puntos mpl de ventajawhat price she'll change her mind? — ¿qué apuestas a que cambia de opinión?
what price war? — ¿qué apuestas a que estallará la guerra?
4) (=sacrifice) precio mthat's the price we have to pay for progress, that's the price of progress — es el precio que tenemos que pagar por el progreso
to pay the price (for sth) — cargar con or pagar las consecuencias (de algo)
•
fame comes at a price — la fama se paga carahe's famous now, but at what a price! — ahora es famoso, ¡pero a qué precio! or ¡pero lo ha pagado caro!
they want peace at any price — quieren la paz a toda costa (with negative)
a concert I wasn't going to miss at any price — un concierto que no me iba a perder por nada del mundo
•
that's a small price to pay for independence/for keeping him happy — eso es poco sacrificio a cambio de la independencia/de tenerlo contento2. VT1) (=fix price of)retailers usually price goods by adding 100% to the wholesale price — los minoristas normalmente ponen precio a sus productos añadiendo un cien por cien al precio de coste, los minoristas normalmente cargan un cien por cien al precio de coste de sus productos
tickets, priced £20, are now available — las entradas ya están a la venta a un precio de 20 libras
it was priced too high/low — su precio era demasiado alto/bajo
this stylish fryer, competitively priced at £29.99, can help you create new dishes — por solo £29.99, esta elegante freidora puede ayudarle a crear nuevos platos
•
there is a very reasonably priced menu — hay un menú a un precio muy razonable- price sb out of the marketthe restaurant has priced itself out of the market — el restaurante ha subido demasiado los precios y ha perdido su competitividad en el mercado
you'll price yourself out of a job if you go on demanding so much money — como sigas exigiendo tanto dinero, pondrás en peligro tu trabajo
2) (=label with price)the tins of salmon weren't clearly priced — el precio de la latas de salmón no estaba claro or claramente indicado
•
it was priced at £15 — estaba marcado a un precio de 15 libras3) (=estimate value of) calcular el valor de•
it was priced at £1,000 — estaba valorado en mil libras4) (=find out price of) comprobar el precio de3.CPDprice bracket N —
he's looking for a property in the £70,000 price bracket — está buscando una vivienda que cueste alrededor de las setenta mil libras
that is the normal price bracket for one of his creations — ese es el precio normal de or eso es lo que se paga normalmente por una de sus creaciones
a traditional restaurant in the middle price bracket — un restaurante tradicional con precios de un nivel medio (dentro de la escala)
price control N — control m de precios
price cutting N — reducción f de precios
price-earnings ratio N — (Econ) relación f precio ganancias
price fixing N — fijación f de precios
price freeze N — congelación f de precios
price increase N — subida f de precio
consumer 2.price index N — (Brit) índice m de precios
price inflation N — inflación f de los precios
price level N — nivel m de precios
price limit N — tope m, precio m tope
price list N — lista f de precios
price point N — rango m de precios
no price point exists for the machine yet — todavía no se ha establecido ningún rango de precios para la máquina
price range N —
there are lots of good products in all price ranges — hay gran cantidad de productos de buena calidad en una amplia gama de precios
in the medium or middle price range — dentro de un nivel medio de la escala de precios
the upper/lower end of the price range — el nivel más alto/bajo en la escala de precios
(with)in/out of one's price range — dentro de/fuera de las posibilidades de uno
price rigging N — fijación f fraudulenta de precios
price ring N — cártel m (para la fijación de precios)
price rise N — = price increase
prices and incomes policy N — política f de precios y salarios, política f de precios y rentas
price support N — subsidio m de precios
price tag N — (lit) etiqueta f (del precio); (fig) precio m
it doesn't justify the price tag of £17.5 million — no justifica un precio de 17,5 millones de libras
- price up* * *
I [praɪs]1) (Busn, Fin) precio m; ( of stocks) cotización f, precio mthey're the same price — valen or cuestan lo mismo
at a price of £80 — por 80 libras
accommodation is available, at o for a price — es posible encontrar alojamiento, pero sale or cuesta caro
to go up/down in price — subir/bajar de precio
I'll take the job, if the price is right — aceptaré el trabajo si (me) pagan bien; (before n)
price list — lista f de precios
price rise — subida f or (RPl tb) suba f de precios
2) (cost, sacrifice) precio mthey want peace at any price — quieren la paz cueste lo que cueste or a toda costa
not at any price! — de ningún modo!, por nada del mundo!
what price peace? — ¿va a ser posible lograr la paz?
to pay a/the price for something — pagar* caro algo
that's a small price to pay for independence — bien vale la pena ese sacrificio para ser independiente
3) ( value) (liter) precio mit's beyond o without price — no tiene precio, es invalorable
II
a) ( fix price of) (often pass)it was originally priced at over $300 — su precio original era de más de 300 dólares
they have priced themselves out of the market — han subido tanto los precios que se han quedado sin compradores (or clientes etc)
b) ( mark price on) ponerle* el precio a -
16 to
1. tə,tu preposition1) (towards; in the direction of: I cycled to the station; The book fell to the floor; I went to the concert/lecture/play.) a, hacia2) (as far as: His story is a lie from beginning to end.) a, hasta3) (until: Did you stay to the end of the concert?) hasta4) (sometimes used to introduce the indirect object of a verb: He sent it to us; You're the only person I can talk to.) con, a5) (used in expressing various relations: Listen to me!; Did you reply to his letter?; Where's the key to this door?; He sang to (the accompaniment of) his guitar.) a, para6) (into a particular state or condition: She tore the letter to pieces.) en7) (used in expressing comparison or proportion: He's junior to me; Your skill is superior to mine; We won the match by 5 goals to 2.) a8) (showing the purpose or result of an action etc: He came quickly to my assistance; To my horror, he took a gun out of his pocket.) en; para9) (tə used before an infinitive eg after various verbs and adjectives, or in other constructions: I want to go!; He asked me to come; He worked hard to (= in order to) earn a lot of money; These buildings were designed to (= so as to) resist earthquakes; She opened her eyes to find him standing beside her; I arrived too late to see him.) para10) (used instead of a complete infinitive: He asked her to stay but she didn't want to.) (hacerlo)
2. tu: adverb1) (into a closed or almost closed position: He pulled/pushed the door to.) hasta cerrar2) (used in phrasal verbs and compounds: He came to (= regained consciousness).) a•to prep1. a2. a / hastashe works from nine to five trabaja de nueve a cinco / trabaja desde las nueve hasta las cinco3. menos4. paratotr[tʊ, ʊnstressed tə]1 (with place) a■ did you go to the bank? ¿fuiste al banco?■ A is to the north/south/east/west of B A está al norte/sur/este/oeste de B2 (towards) hacia3 (as far as, until) a, hasta■ I like all music, from Abba to ZZTop me gusta toda la música, desde Abba hasta ZZTop4 (of time) menos6 (for) de■ what's the answer to question 4? ¿cuál es la respuesta a la pregunta número 4?7 (attitude, behaviour) con, para con8 (in honour of) a9 (touching) a, contra10 (accompanied by) acompañado,-a de11 (causing something) para■ to my surprise, it was empty para mi sorpresa, estaba vacío12 (as seen by) por lo que respecta■ to a foreigner, it must seem awful para un extranjero, debe parecer terrible■ to some people he was a hero, to others a traitor para algunos era un héroe, para otros era un traidor14 (ratio) a15 (per, equivalent) a, en■ how much does your car do to the gallon? ≈ ¿cuánto gasta tu coche a los cien kilómetros?16 (according to) según■ is it to your taste? ¿es de su agrado?17 (result) a18 (in order to) para, a fin de■ would you like to dance? --I'd love to ¿te gustaría bailar? --me encantaría■ she didn't want to go, but she had to no quería ir, pero no le quedaba más remedio1 (of door) ajustada\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLto and fro vaivén, ir y venir Table 1SMALLNOTA/SMALL Cuando se usa con la raíz del verbo para formar el infinitivo no se traduce/Table 1 ■ I want to help you quiero ayudarteto ['tu:] adv1) : a un estado conscienteto come to: volver en sí2)to and fro : de aquí para allá, de un lado para otroto prepto go to the doctor: ir al médicoI'm going to John's: voy a la casa de John2) toward: a, haciatwo miles to the south: dos millas hacia el sur3) on: en, sobreapply salve to the wound: póngale ungüento a la herida4) up to: hasta, ato a degree: hasta cierto gradofrom head to toe: de pies a cabezait's quarter to seven: son las siete menos cuarto6) until: a, hastafrom May to December: de mayo a diciembrethe key to the lock: la llave del candadodancing to the rhythm: bailando al compásit's similar to mine: es parecido al míothey won 4 to 2: ganaron 4 a 2made to order: hecho a la ordento my knowledge: a mi sabertwenty to the box: veinte por cajato understand: entenderto go away: irse
I tuː, weak form tə1)a) ( indicating destination) awe went to John's — fuimos a casa de John, fuimos a lo de John (RPl), fuimos donde John (esp AmL)
you can wear it to a party/the wedding — puedes ponértelo para una fiesta/la boda
b) ( indicating direction) haciac) ( indicating position) ato the left/right of something — a la izquierda/derecha de algo
2) (against, onto)3)a) ( as far as) hastab) ( until) hastac) ( indicating range)there will be 30 to 35 guests — habrá entre 30 y 35 invitados; see also from 4)
4)a) ( showing indirect object)who did you send/give it to? — ¿a quién se lo mandaste/diste?
what did you say to him/them? — ¿qué le/les dijiste?
I'll hand you over to Jane — te paso or (Esp tb) te pongo con Jane
I was singing/talking to myself — estaba cantando/hablando solo
to me, he will always be a hero — para mí, siempre será un héroe
he was very kind/rude to me — fue muy amable/grosero conmigo
b) (in toasts, dedications)to Paul with love from Jane — para Paul, con cariño de Jane
5) (indicating proportion, relation)how many ounces are there to the pound? — ¿cuántas onzas hay en una libra?
it does 30 miles to the gallon — da or rinde 30 millas por galón, consume 6.75 litros a los or por cada cien kilómetros
there's a 10 to 1 chance of... — hay una probabilidad de uno en 10 de...
that's nothing to what followed — eso no es nada comparado or en comparación con lo que vino después
6) ( concerning)what do you say to that? — ¿qué dices a eso?, ¿qué te parece (eso)?
there's nothing to it — es muy simple or sencillo
7)a) ( in accordance with)b) ( producing)to my horror/delight... — para mi horror/alegría...
c) ( indicating purpose)8) ( indicating belonging) dethe solution to the problem — la solución al or del problema
it has a nice ring/sound to it — suena bien
9) ( telling time) (BrE)ten to three — las tres menos diez, diez para las tres (AmL exc RPl)
10) ( accompanied by)they sang it to the tune of `Clementine' — lo cantaron con la melodía de `Clementine'
II tə1)a)to sing/fear/leave — cantar/temer/partir
b) ( in order to) parac) ( indicating result)he awoke to find her gone — cuando despertó, ella ya se había ido
I walked 5 miles only to be told they weren't home — caminé 5 millas para que me dijeran que no estaban en casa
d) ( without vb)2) (after adj or n)it's easy/difficult to do — es fácil/difícil de hacer
III tuː [tʊ, tuː, tǝ]1. PREPOSITIONWhen to is the second element in a phrasal verb, eg set to, heave to, look up the phrasal verb. When to is part of a set combination, eg nice to, to my mind, to all appearances, appeal to, look up the other word.1) (destination) aNote: a + el = al
it's 90 kilometres to Lima — de aquí a Lima hay 90 kilómetros, hay 90 kilómetros a Lima
to go to Paris/Spain — ir a París/España
to go to school/university — ir al colegio/a la Universidad
I liked the exhibition, I went to it twice — me gustó la exposición, fui a verla dos veces
we're going to John's/my parents' for Christmas — vamos a casa de John/mis padres por Navidad
•
have you ever been to India? — ¿has estado alguna vez en la India?•
flights to Heathrow — vuelos a or con destino a Heathrowchurch 1., 2)•
the road to Edinburgh — la carretera de Edimburgo2) (=towards) haciamove it to the left/right — muévelo hacia la izquierda/derecha
3) (=as far as) hastafrom here to London — de aquí a or hasta Londres
4) (=up to) hastato some extent — hasta cierto punto, en cierta medida
•
to this day I still don't know what he meant — aún hoy no sé lo que quiso decir•
from Monday to Friday — de lunes a viernesfrom morning to night — de la mañana a la noche, desde la mañana hasta la noche
decimal 1.•
funds to the value of... — fondos por valor de...5) (=located at) a6) (=against) contrait's a quarter to three — son las tres menos cuarto, es or (LAm) falta un cuarto para las tres
the man I sold it to or frm to whom I sold it — el hombre a quien se lo vendí
it belongs to me — me pertenece (a mí), es mío
what is that to me? — ¿y a mí qué me importa eso?
"that's strange," I said to myself — -es raro -me dije para mis adentros
9) (in dedications, greetings)greetings to all our friends! — ¡saludos a todos los amigos!
welcome to you all! — ¡bienvenidos todos!
"to P.R. Lilly" — (in book) "para P.R. Lilly"
here's to you! — ¡va por ti!, ¡por ti!
a monument to the fallen — un monumento a los caídos, un monumento en honor a los caídos
10) (in ratios, proportions) porthe odds against it happening are a million to one — las probabilidades de que eso ocurra son una entre un millón
three to the fourth, three to the power of four — (Math) tres a la cuarta potencia
11) (in comparisons) a12) (=about, concerning)what do you say to that? — ¿qué te parece (eso)?
what would you say to a beer? — ¿te parece que tomemos una cerveza?
"to repairing pipes:..." — (on bill) "reparación de las cañerías:..."
13) (=according to) segúnto my way of thinking — a mi modo de ver, según mi modo de pensar
14) (=to the accompaniment of)it is sung to the tune of "Tipperary" — se canta con la melodía de "Tipperary"
15) (=of, for) de16) (with gerund/noun)•
to look forward to doing sth — tener muchas ganas de hacer algo•
to prefer painting to drawing — preferir pintar a dibujar•
to be used to (doing) sth — estar acostumbrado a (hacer) algo•
to this end — a or con este fin•
to my enormous shame I did nothing — para gran vergüenza mía, no hice nada•
to my great surprise — con gran sorpresa por mi parte, para gran sorpresa mía2. INFINITIVE PARTICLE1) (infinitive)a)A preposition may be required with the Spanish infinitive, depending on what precedes it: look up the verb.•
she refused to listen — se negó a escuchar•
to start to cry — empezar or ponerse a llorar•
to try to do sth — tratar de hacer algo, intentar hacer algo•
to want to do sth — querer hacer algo•
I'd advise you to think this over — te aconsejaría que te pensaras bien esto•
he'd like me to give up work — le gustaría que dejase de trabajar•
we'd prefer him to go to university — preferiríamos que fuese a la universidad•
I want you to do it — quiero que lo hagasc)there was no one for me to ask, there wasn't anyone for me to ask — no había nadie a quien yo pudiese preguntar
he's not the sort or type to do that — no es de los que hacen eso
•
that book is still to be written — ese libro está todavía por escribir•
now is the time to do it — ahora es el momento de hacerlo•
and who is he to criticize? — ¿y quién es él para criticar?3) (purpose, result) paraThe particle to is not translated when it stands for the infinitive:it disappeared, never to be seen again — desapareció para siempre
we didn't want to sell it but we had to — no queríamos venderlo pero tuvimos que hacerlo or no hubo más remedio
"would you like to come to dinner?" - "I'd love to!" — -¿te gustaría venir a cenar? -¡me encantaría!
For combinations like difficult/easy/foolish/ ready/ slow to etc, look up the adjective.you may not want to do it but you ought to for the sake of your education — tal vez no quieres hacerlo pero deberías en aras de tu educación
the first/last to go — el primero/último en irse
See:EASY, DIFFICULT, IMPOSSIBLE in easyand then to be let down like that! — ¡y para que luego te decepcionen así!
and to think he didn't mean a word of it! — ¡y pensar que nada de lo que dijo era de verdad!
7)to see him now one would never think that... — al verlo or viéndolo ahora nadie creería que...
3.ADVERBto pull the door to — tirar de la puerta para cerrarla, cerrar la puerta tirando
to push the door to — empujar la puerta para cerrarla, cerrar la puerta empujando
* * *
I [tuː], weak form [tə]1)a) ( indicating destination) awe went to John's — fuimos a casa de John, fuimos a lo de John (RPl), fuimos donde John (esp AmL)
you can wear it to a party/the wedding — puedes ponértelo para una fiesta/la boda
b) ( indicating direction) haciac) ( indicating position) ato the left/right of something — a la izquierda/derecha de algo
2) (against, onto)3)a) ( as far as) hastab) ( until) hastac) ( indicating range)there will be 30 to 35 guests — habrá entre 30 y 35 invitados; see also from 4)
4)a) ( showing indirect object)who did you send/give it to? — ¿a quién se lo mandaste/diste?
what did you say to him/them? — ¿qué le/les dijiste?
I'll hand you over to Jane — te paso or (Esp tb) te pongo con Jane
I was singing/talking to myself — estaba cantando/hablando solo
to me, he will always be a hero — para mí, siempre será un héroe
he was very kind/rude to me — fue muy amable/grosero conmigo
b) (in toasts, dedications)to Paul with love from Jane — para Paul, con cariño de Jane
5) (indicating proportion, relation)how many ounces are there to the pound? — ¿cuántas onzas hay en una libra?
it does 30 miles to the gallon — da or rinde 30 millas por galón, consume 6.75 litros a los or por cada cien kilómetros
there's a 10 to 1 chance of... — hay una probabilidad de uno en 10 de...
that's nothing to what followed — eso no es nada comparado or en comparación con lo que vino después
6) ( concerning)what do you say to that? — ¿qué dices a eso?, ¿qué te parece (eso)?
there's nothing to it — es muy simple or sencillo
7)a) ( in accordance with)b) ( producing)to my horror/delight... — para mi horror/alegría...
c) ( indicating purpose)8) ( indicating belonging) dethe solution to the problem — la solución al or del problema
it has a nice ring/sound to it — suena bien
9) ( telling time) (BrE)ten to three — las tres menos diez, diez para las tres (AmL exc RPl)
10) ( accompanied by)they sang it to the tune of `Clementine' — lo cantaron con la melodía de `Clementine'
II [tə]1)a)to sing/fear/leave — cantar/temer/partir
b) ( in order to) parac) ( indicating result)he awoke to find her gone — cuando despertó, ella ya se había ido
I walked 5 miles only to be told they weren't home — caminé 5 millas para que me dijeran que no estaban en casa
d) ( without vb)2) (after adj or n)it's easy/difficult to do — es fácil/difícil de hacer
III [tuː] -
17 circuit
1) схема; цепь; контур2) канал; линия; тракт3) тлф. шлейф5) круговое движение, движение по окружности || совершать круговое движение, двигаться по окружности•- 2D circuit
- 3D circuit
- absorbing circuit
- absorption circuit
- ac circuit
- acceptor circuit
- adaptive logic circuit
- additive printed circuit
- adjustable threshold logic circuit
- aerial circuit
- alive circuit
- aluminium-gate MOS integrated circuit
- aluminum-gate MOS integrated circuit
- AM detecting circuit
- analog circuit
- ancillary circuit
- AND circuit
- anode circuit
- antenna circuit
- anticlutter circuit
- anticoincidence circuit
- antihunt circuit
- antijamming circuit
- anti-Karp circuit
- antiresonance circuit
- antiresonant circuit
- antisidetone circuit
- aperiodic circuit
- application-specific integrated circuit
- approved circuit
- array integrated circuit
- astable circuit
- autodyne circuit
- automatic start circuit
- averaging circuit
- azimuth-sweep circuit
- back-plate circuit
- back-to-back circuit
- balanced circuit
- base-line marker circuit
- basic circuit
- beta circuit
- beta feedback circuit
- bias circuit
- bidirectional clamping circuit
- bilateral circuit
- bipolar circuit
- bipolar integrated circuit
- bistable circuit
- bistable multivibrator circuit
- black stretch circuit
- black-level restoring circuit
- black-level setting circuit
- blanking circuit
- bootstrap circuit
- bound circuit
- boxcar circuit
- branch circuit
- branched circuit
- bridge circuit
- bridged circuit
- broken circuit
- bubble annihilation circuit
- bubble circuit
- bubble detection circuit
- bubble propagation circuit
- bubble replication circuit
- bubble stretching circuit
- bubble switching circuit
- bubble-domain annihilation circuit
- bubble-domain detection circuit
- bubble-domain propagation circuit
- bubble-domain replication circuit
- bubble-domain stretching circuit
- bubble-domain switching circuit
- bucket-brigade circuit
- buffer circuit
- building-out circuit
- built-up circuit
- bulk-effect integrated circuit
- butterfly circuit
- butterfly tank circuit
- calibrating circuit
- call circuit
- capacitive differentiator circuit
- capacitive oscillatory circuit
- cathode circuit
- central-battery circuit
- ceramic printed circuit
- charge-coupled device integrated circuit
- chemically deposited printed circuit
- chemically reduced printed circuit
- chemically-assembled integrated circuit
- chevron bubble propagation circuit
- chevron bubble-domain propagation circuit
- chip integrated circuit
- cholesteric circuit
- chopping circuit
- chrominance matrix circuit
- chrominance separation circuit
- chrominance take-off circuit
- circuit of graph
- clamping circuit
- clamp-on circuit
- clipping circuit
- clock circuit
- clocked circuit
- close-coupled circuits
- closed circuit
- closed magnetic circuit
- CMOS integrated circuit
- coaxial circuit
- coincidence circuit
- collector circuit
- collector-diffusion isolated integrated circuit
- color processing circuit
- color purity circuit
- color-balance circuit
- color-indexing circuit
- color-killer circuit
- Colpitts oscillatory circuit
- combinational circuit
- combinatorial circuit
- combiner circuit
- common-base circuit
- common-battery circuit
- common-cathode circuit
- common-collector circuit
- common-drain circuit
- common-emitter circuit
- common-gate circuit
- common-grid circuit
- common-source circuit
- common-use circuit
- compander circuit
- comparator circuit
- comparison circuit
- compatible circuit
- compensating circuit
- complementary circuit
- complementary MOS integrated circuit
- complementary symmetry circuit
- complementary symmetry MOS integrated circuit
- complementary-output circuit
- composite circuit
- compound circuit
- compression circuit
- computer circuits
- conference circuit
- consumer integrated circuit
- contiguous-disk bubble propagation circuit
- contiguous-disk bubble-domain propagation circuit
- control circuit
- controller circuit
- convergence circuit
- cord circuit
- core-diode circuit
- core-transistor circuit
- correction input circuit
- COSMOS circuit
- countdown circuits
- counter circuit
- counter timer circuit
- counting circuit
- coupled circuits
- cross-control circuit
- crossed-waveguide circuit
- crosspoint integrated circuit
- cryotron circuit
- cue circuit
- current-access bubble circuit
- current-feedback circuit
- current-limited circuit
- current-source equivalent circuit
- custom circuit
- customer-specific integrated circuit
- custom-wired integrated circuit
- cutoff circuit
- damping circuit
- dash circuit
- data circuit
- dc circuit
- dc restoration circuit
- dead-on-arrival integrated circuit
- decision circuit
- decision making circuit
- decoupling circuit
- dedicated integrated circuit
- deep-submicron integrated circuit
- degenerative circuit
- delay circuit
- delay-insensitive circuit
- delay-sensitive circuit
- delta circuit
- demultiplexing circuit
- deposited integrated circuit
- derived circuit
- despiker circuit
- despiking circuit
- detector circuit
- detuned circuit
- dial toll circuit
- dial-up circuit
- diamond circuit
- die integrated circuit
- dielectric isolated integrated circuit
- differential-frequency circuit
- differentiating circuit
- diffused-isolation integrated circuit
- digital circuit
- digital integrated circuit
- digital logic circuit
- diode array integrated circuit
- diode integrated circuit
- diode-coupled circuit
- diplex circuit
- direct international circuit
- direct transit international circuit
- direct-coupled circuit
- direct-wire circuit
- discharge circuit
- discrete circuit
- discrete-component circuit
- disjunction circuit
- distributed-element circuit
- divided circuit
- dividing circuit
- Doppler tracking circuit
- dot circuit
- double-coincidence circuit
- double-ended cord circuit
- double-ridge easitron circuit
- double-ridge Karp circuit
- double-sided circuit
- double-tuned circuit
- down-scaled integrated circuit
- driven circuit
- dry circuit
- dry-processed integrated circuit
- DTF circuit
- dual-in-line integrated circuit
- duplex circuit
- duplicated circuit
- dynamic-convergence circuit
- dynamic-focus circuit
- dynamic-track following circuit
- earth circuit
- earthed circuit
- E-beam litho circuit
- EC circuit
- Eccles-Jordan circuit
- EITHER-OR circuit
- electric circuit
- electronic circuit
- elevated-electrode integrated circuit
- embossed-foil printed circuit
- emitter-coupled circuit
- emitter-follower logic integrated circuit
- engineering circuit
- epitaxial circuit
- epitaxial passivated integrated circuit
- equalization circuit
- equivalent circuit
- equivalent integrated circuit
- etched printed circuit
- evaporated circuit
- exclusive OR circuit
- expanded-sweep circuit
- expander circuit
- external circuit
- external magnetic circuit
- extra LSI circuit
- face-down integrated circuit
- fail-safe circuit
- fallback circuit
- fan-in circuit
- fan-out circuit
- fast time-constant circuit
- feed circuit
- feedback circuit
- ferrite-diode circuit
- ferrite-transistor circuit
- ferroresonant circuit
- field-access bubble circuit
- field-programmable integrated circuit
- filament circuit
- film integrated circuit
- fine-line integrated circuit
- fine-pattern integrated circuit
- flat-pack integrated circuit
- flexible printed circuit
- flip-chip integrated circuit
- flip-flop circuit
- flux transfer circuit
- flywheel circuit
- forced coupled circuits
- forked circuit
- four-wire circuit
- frame-grounding circuit
- frame-scanning circuit
- free coupled circuits
- freely oscillating coupled circuits
- free-running circuit
- frequency-changing circuit
- full-wave circuit
- fully integrated circuit
- function circuit
- g equivalent circuit
- ganged circuits
- gate circuit
- gate equivalent circuit
- Giacoletto circuit
- Goto-pair circuit
- grid circuit
- grounded circuit
- grounded-base circuit
- grounded-collector circuit
- grounded-emitter circuit
- grounded-grid circuit
- ground-return circuit
- grouping circuit
- guard-ring isolated monolithic integrated circuit
- Gunn-effect circuit
- h equivalent circuit
- half-phantom circuit
- half-wave circuit
- Hamilton circuit
- hardened circuit
- Hartley oscillatory circuit
- Hazeltine neutralizing circuit
- head circuit
- heater circuit
- high-temperature superconductor integrated circuit
- holding circuit
- horizontal scanning circuit
- horizontal sync circuit
- horizontal-deflection circuit
- hotline circuit
- hybrid circuit
- hybrid integrated circuit
- hybrid pi equivalent circuit
- hybrid thin-film circuit
- hybrid thin-film integrated circuit
- hybrid-type circuit
- I2L circuit
- ideal-transformer equivalent circuit
- identification circuit
- idler circuit
- ignition circuit
- image circuit
- impulsing circuit
- inclusive NOR circuit
- inclusive OR circuit
- incoming circuit
- individually wired circuit
- inductance-capacitance coupling circuit
- inductive circuit
- inductive differentiator circuit
- inductive oscillatory circuit
- inductively coupled circuit
- injection circuit
- injection integrated circuit
- input circuit
- inquiry circuit
- insulated-substrate integrated circuit
- integrate-and-dump circuit
- integrated circuit
- integrated injection logic circuit
- integrated optical circuit
- integrating circuit
- interaction circuit
- interface circuit
- inter-integrated circuit
- interlock circuit
- intermediate-frequency circuit
- inverter circuit
- ion-implanted bubble propagation circuit
- ion-implanted bubble-domain propagation circuit
- ion-implanted MOS integrated circuit
- iron circuit
- isolated integrated injection logic circuit
- isolated-substrate solid circuit
- isoplanar integrated circuit
- isoplanar-based integrated circuit
- joint circuit
- joint denial circuit
- Josephson logic integrated circuit
- Josephson-junction logic integrated circuit
- junction circuit
- junction-isolation integrated circuit
- Karp circuit
- keep-alive circuit
- keying circuit
- killer circuit
- label circuit
- ladder circuit
- lagging circuit
- large-scale hybrid integration circuit
- large-scale integration circuit
- laser-configured application-specific integrated circuit
- latched circuit
- latching Boolean circuit
- latching circuit
- leak circuit
- leakage circuit
- leased circuit
- line circuit
- linear circuit
- linear integrated circuit
- line-scan circuit
- line-scanning circuit
- live circuit
- load circuit
- local circuit
- local-battery circuit
- locking circuit
- Loftin-White circuit
- logic circuit
- long-distance telephone circuit
- longitudinal circuit
- losser circuit
- low-energy circuit
- low-temperature superconductor integrated circuit
- L-section circuit
- lumped circuit
- lumped-constant circuit
- made-to-order circuit
- magnetic circuit
- magnetic convergence circuit
- magnetic integrated circuit
- magnetic-core circuit
- majority circuit
- master-slice integrated circuit
- matching circuit
- matrix circuit
- matrix integrated circuit
- McCulloh circuit
- medium-scale integration circuit
- memory circuit
- merged transistor logic integrated circuit
- Mesny circuit
- message circuit
- metal-dielectric-semiconductor integrated circuit
- metallic circuit
- metal-oxide-semiconductor integrated circuit
- metal-oxide-semiconductor large scale integration circuit
- meter-current circuit
- meter-voltage circuit
- microcomputer integrated circuit
- microelectronic integrated circuit
- microenergy logic circuit
- micrologic circuit
- micropower circuit
- microprinted circuit
- microprocessor integrated circuit
- microprocessor logic-support circuit
- microprogrammed circuit
- microwatt circuit
- microwave circuit
- microwave integrated circuit
- mix circuit
- mixing circuit
- molecular integrated circuit
- monobrid integrated circuit
- monolithic integrated circuit
- monolithic microwave integrated circuit
- monophase integrated circuit
- monostable circuit
- MOS integrated circuit
- MOS-on-sapphire integrated circuit
- MTL integrated circuit
- mu circuit
- mu feedback circuit
- multibrid integrated circuit
- multichip integrated circuit
- multidrop circuit
- multifunctional integrated circuit
- multilayer circuit
- multilevel-metallized integrated circuit
- multiphase integrated circuit
- multiplanar circuit
- multiple circuit
- multiple-chip circuit
- multiple-substrate solid circuit
- multipoint circuit
- multistable circuit
- multistage circuit
- muting circuit
- NAND circuit
- nanotube integrated circuit
- n-channel logic MOS integrated circuit
- negative OR circuit
- NEITHER-NOR circuit
- neutral magnetic circuit
- neutralizing circuit
- noise equivalent circuit
- noise suppression circuit
- nondisjunction circuit
- noninductive circuit
- nonlinear circuit
- nonphantomed circuits
- nonredundant circuit
- NOR circuit
- NOT circuit
- NOT-AND circuit
- NOT-OR circuit
- off-the-shelf circuit
- one-chip integrated circuit
- one-sided circuit
- one-wire circuit
- open circuit
- open magnetic circuit
- open-wire circuit
- optical integrated circuit
- optically coupled circuit
- optoelectronic integrated circuit
- optron integrated circuit
- OR circuit
- OR-ELSE circuit
- oscillator circuit
- oscillatory circuit
- output circuit
- overcoupled circuits
- overlap telling circuit
- oxide-isolated integrated circuit
- packaged circuit
- painted printed circuit
- parallel circuit
- parallel LCR circuit
- parallel-resonant circuit
- parallel-series circuit
- passivated integrated circuit
- p-channel logic MOS integrated circuit
- peak-holding circuit
- peaking circuit
- peak-riding clipping circuit
- perforated bubble propagation circuit
- perforated bubble-domain propagation circuit
- periodic circuit
- peripheral integrated circuit
- permalloy circuit
- permanent virtual circuit
- phantom circuit
- phase-advance circuit
- phase-comparison circuit
- phase-compensating circuit
- phase-delay circuit
- phase-equalizing circuit
- phase-inverting circuit
- phase-lag circuit
- phase-shift circuit
- photonic integrated circuit
- physical circuits
- physical equivalent circuit
- pi circuit
- pickax bubble propagation circuit
- pickax bubble-domain propagation circuit
- piezoelectric-crystal equivalent circuit
- pilot circuit
- planar integrated circuit
- planex integrated circuit
- plastic integrated circuit
- plastic-encapsulated integrated circuit
- plate circuit
- plated circuit
- plated printed circuit
- p-n junction isolated integrated circuit
- point-to-point circuit
- polar circuit
- polarized magnetic circuit
- polling circuit
- polymer integrated circuit
- polymer logic circuit
- polymer-based logic circuit
- polyphase circuit
- positioning circuit
- potentiometer circuit
- potted circuit
- power adder circuit
- preemphasis circuit
- presetting circuit
- primary circuit
- primary series circuit
- printed circuit
- printed wiring circuit
- printed-component circuit
- program circuit
- programmed interconnection pattern large-scale integration circuit
- propagation circuit
- proprietary integrated circuit
- pulse-actuated circuit
- pulse-shaping circuit
- pulsing circuit
- pump circuit
- pumping circuit
- purity circuit
- push-pull circuit
- push-push circuit
- push-to-talk circuit
- push-to-type circuit
- quadruplex circuit
- quasi-bistable circuit
- quasi-monostable circuit
- quenching circuit
- quiet-tuning circuit
- r equivalent circuit
- radiating circuit
- radiation hardened integrated circuit
- radio circuit
- radio communication circuit
- radio-frequency integrated circuit
- radio-receiving circuit
- radio-transmitting circuit
- range-marker circuit
- range-sweep circuit
- range-tracking circuit
- rapid single flux quantum circuit
- RC circuit
- RCG circuit
- RCTL circuit
- RDTL circuit
- reactance control circuit
- reaction circuit
- reactive circuit
- read-and-write circuit
- redundant circuit
- reflex circuit
- regenerative circuit
- rejector circuit
- repeat circuit
- reset circuit
- reset control circuit
- reshaping circuit
- resistance-capacitance circuit
- resistance-inductance circuit
- resistance-inductance-capacitance circuit
- resistor-capacitor-transistor logic circuit
- resistor-coupled transistor logic circuit
- resistor-diode-transistor logic circuit
- resistor-transistor logic circuit
- resonant circuit
- retroactive circuit
- reverberation-controlled gain circuit
- right-plane circuit
- ring circuit
- ring-and-bar circuit
- ringdown circuit
- ringing circuit
- RL circuit
- RLC circuit
- RSFQ circuit
- RTL circuit
- sample-and-hold circuit
- sampling circuit
- scaled integrated circuit
- scale-of-eight circuit
- scale-of-ten circuit
- scale-of-two circuit
- scaling circuit
- scanning circuit
- scrambler circuit
- screened circuit
- sealed circuit
- sealed-junction integration circuit
- selective circuit
- self-holding circuit
- self-repairing circuit
- self-saturating circuit
- semiconductor integrated circuit
- semiconductor-magnetic circuit
- semicustom integrated circuit
- separation circuit
- series circuit
- series RLC circuit
- series-peaking circuit
- series-resonant circuit
- service circuit
- short circuit
- shunt circuit
- shunt-peaking circuit
- shunt-series circuit
- side circuits
- sidetone suppression circuit
- signal circuit
- signal-processing circuit
- silent circuit
- silicon integrated circuit
- silicon-on-sapphire integrated circuit
- simple parallel circuit
- simplex circuit
- single-chip integrated circuit
- single-ended circuit
- single-mask level bubble circuit
- single-phase circuit
- single-ridge easitron circuit
- single-ridge Karp circuit
- single-shot trigger circuit
- single-trip trigger circuit
- single-tuned circuit
- single-wire circuit
- slave circuit
- sliding short circuit
- slow-wave circuit
- small outline integrated circuit
- small-scale integrated circuit
- smoothing circuit
- sneak circuit
- software circuit
- solid-state circuit
- spare circuit
- spark circuit
- speaker circuit
- sprayed printed circuit
- square-rooting circuit
- squaring circuit
- squelch circuit
- stacked circuit
- staggered circuits
- stamped printed circuit
- standard scale circuit
- star-connected circuit
- starting circuit
- start-stop circuit
- static-induction transistor integrated circuit
- stenode circuit
- stick circuit
- stopper circuit
- storage circuit
- straightforward circuit
- stripline circuit
- submicron integrated circuit
- subscriber line interface circuit
- subscriber-line audio-processing circuit
- superconducting tank circuit
- superimposed circuit
- superposed circuit
- supervising circuit
- support circuit
- sweep circuit
- switch virtual circuit
- switched circuit
- switching circuit
- sync separator circuit
- sync stretch circuit
- synchronous circuit
- T2L circuit
- talk-back circuit
- tank circuit
- tantalum thin-film circuit
- tap circuit
- tapped circuit
- tapped resonant circuit
- tapped-capacitor circuit
- tapped-capacitor resonant circuit
- tapped-coil circuit
- tapped-coil resonant circuit
- tapped-inductor circuit
- tapped-inductor resonant circuit
- T-bar bubble propagation circuit
- T-bar bubble-domain propagation circuit
- T-circuit
- telegraph circuit
- telephone circuit
- telling circuit
- terminating circuit
- Thevenin equivalent circuit
- thick-film circuit
- thin-film circuit
- three-dimensional circuit
- three-phase circuit
- threshold circuit
- through circuit
- tie-line circuit
- time-base circuit
- time-delay circuit
- toll-circuit
- totem-pole circuit
- transfer circuit
- transformer-coupled circuit
- transistor equivalent circuit
- transistor-transistor logic circuit
- traveling-wave-tube interaction circuit
- tributary circuit
- trigger circuit
- trunk circuit
- trunk terminating circuit
- trunk-junction circuit
- tse circuit
- TTL circuit
- tube circuit
- tube equivalent circuit
- tuned circuit
- tuning circuit
- twin-circuit
- twin-T circuit
- two-dimensional circuit
- two-state circuit
- two-way circuit
- two-wire circuit
- UHS integrated circuit
- ultra-audion circuit
- ultra-high-speed integrated circuit
- unbalanced circuit
- undefined function circuit
- underdamped circuit
- unilateral circuit
- unipolar integrated circuit
- universal cord circuit
- vacuum integrated circuit
- vacuum-deposited integrated circuit
- vapor-deposited printed circuit
- vertical deflection circuit
- vertical scanning circuit
- vertical sync circuit
- very high-speed integrated circuit
- very large-scale integration circuit
- V-groove isolated integrated injection logic circuit
- vibrating circuit
- video circuit
- virtual circuit
- voltage-feedback circuit
- voltage-source equivalent circuit
- wafer-on-scale integrated circuit
- warning circuit
- watch integrated circuit
- waveguide circuit
- waveguide short circuit
- weakly superconducting circuit
- weighting circuit
- welded electronic circuit
- white circuit
- wire circuit
- wired circuit
- wire-wrapped circuit
- writing circuit
- X-bar bubble propagation circuit
- X-bar bubble-domain propagation circuit
- XNOR circuit
- XOR circuit
- X-ray litho integrated circuit
- y equivalent circuit
- Y-bar bubble propagation circuit
- Y-bar bubble-domain propagation circuit
- Y-connected circuit
- z equivalent circuit
- zig-zag asymmetrical permalloy-wedges circuit
- zigzag permalloy track circuitThe New English-Russian Dictionary of Radio-electronics > circuit
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18 code
kəud
1. сущ.
1) а) ист. сборник законов, изданных во время правления того или иного императора б) юр. кодекс, свод законов( государства) ;
система правил( поведения, чести, морали и т.д.) Christianity can never be reduced to a mere code of Ethics. ≈ Христианство никогда не трактовалось узко, просто как свод этических заповедей. Syn: law
2) система кодирования, код, шифр Telegraph companies had to face the extension of the use of code words. ≈ Телеграфные компании были вынуждены столкнуться с расширением сферы использования кодированных слов. Morse code ≈ азбука/код Морзе bar code ≈ штриховой или линейчатый код;
штрих-код( на продаваемой продукции)
2. гл.
1) кодировать, зашифровывать
2) отвечать за генетический код какого-л. элемента a gene that codes for a protein ≈ ген, несущий информацию о белке кодекс, свод законов - civil * гражданский кодекс - criminal * уголовный кодекс - * of commerce торговый кодекс - Black C. (американизм) "Черный кодекс" (рабовладельческие законы до отмены рабства) законы, принципы( чести, морали) - moral * моральный кодекс - * of honour законы чести - to live up to the * of the school поступать согласно традициям школы код - Morse * код Морзе - telegraphic * телеграфный код - * map (морское) кодированная карта - * beacon( морское) сигнальный маяк - * panel (авиация) сигнальное полотнище - * generator( компьютерное) генератор команд - * line (компьютерное) строка программы шифр - a telegram in * шифрованная телеграмма, шифрограмма, шифровка (биология) генетический код (компьютерное) программа( коммерческое) маркировка;
шифр, индекс (продукта) кодифицировать;
кодировать;
шифровать( биология) определять генетический код (коммерческое) маркировать;
проставлять или присваивать шифр, индекс absolute ~ вчт. машинный код access ~ вчт. код доступа address ~ вчт. код адреса alphabetic ~ вчт. буквенный код alphameric ~ вчт. буквенно-цифровой код alphanumeric ~ вчт. алфавитно-цифровая система индексов alphanumeric ~ вчт. алфавитно-цифровой код alphanumeric ~ вчт. буквенно-цифровой индекс alphanumeric ~ вчт. буквенно-цифровой код area ~ трехзначный междугородный телефонный код assembler ~ вчт. программа на ассемблере attribute-control ~ вчт. код управления признаком authentification ~ вчт. код аутентификации bar ~ штриховой код baseline ~ вчт. основное тело программы basic order ~ вчт. код основной команды BCD ~ вчт. двоично-десятичный код binary ~ вчт. двоичный код binary-coded decimal ~ вчт. двоично-десятичный код biquinary ~ вчт. двоично-пятеричный код block ~ вчт. блочный код brevity ~ вчт. сокращенный код bug-arresting ~ вчт. программа со стопором ошибок building ~ строительные нормы и правила card ~ вчт. код перфокарты chain ~ вчт. цепной код character ~ вчт. код символа ~ юр. кодекс, свод законов;
civil code гражданский кодекс;
criminal code уголовный кодекс civil ~ гражданский кодекс code законы ~ законы чести, морали;
моральные нормы;
code of conduct нормы поведения ~ индекс ~ код;
Morse code азбука (или код) Морзе ~ вчт. код ~ код ~ вчт. код ~ юр. кодекс, свод законов;
civil code гражданский кодекс;
criminal code уголовный кодекс ~ кодекс ~ вчт. кодировать ~ кодировать ~ вчт. кодировать ~ кодифицировать ~ маркировать ~ маркировка ~ вчт. машинная программа ~ вчт. машинное слово ~ нормы ~ правила ~ принципы ~ присваивать шифр ~ вчт. программировать ~ проставлять шифр ~ свод законов ~ вчт. система кодирования ~ торг. система кодирования ~ стандарт ~ шифр ~ шифровать по коду, кодировать ~ of accounts план отчета ~ of civil procedure гражданский процессуальный кодекс ~ законы чести, морали;
моральные нормы;
code of conduct нормы поведения ~ of conduct кодекс поведения ~ of ethics этический кодекс ethics: ~ этика;
a code of ethics моральный кодекс ~ of fair information practice правила честной информационной практики ~ of liberalization of capital movements правила снятия ограничений на движение капитала comma-free ~ вчт. код без запятой commercial ~ коммерческие правила commercial ~ свод законов о торговле compiled ~ вчт. объектный код completion ~ вчт. код завершения computer ~ вчт. система команд condition ~ вчт. код условия conditional ~ вчт. код условия conversion ~ вчт. код преобразования ~ юр. кодекс, свод законов;
civil code гражданский кодекс;
criminal code уголовный кодекс criminal ~ уголовный кодекс currency ~ валютный код cycle ~ вчт. циклический код data ~ вчт. кодовый набор data link ~ вчт. код передачи данных decimal ~ вчт. десятичный код destination ~ вчт. адрес назначения destination ~ вчт. код абонента device ~ вчт. адрес устройства dialling ~ код набора digital ~ вчт. цифровой код dot-and-dash ~ вчт. код морзе dot-and-dash: dot-and-dash: ~ code азбука Морзе drive ~ вчт. управляющий код error ~ вчт. код ошибки error-checking ~ вчт. код с контролем ошибок error-control ~ вчт. код с обнаружением ошибок error-correcting ~ вчт. код с исправлением ошибок error-detecting ~ вчт. код с обнаружением ошибок escape ~ вчт. код смены алфавита escape ~ вчт. управляющий код executable ~ вчт. рабочая программа exit ~ вчт. код завершения exponent ~ вчт. код порядка false ~ вчт. запрещенный код field control ~ вчт. код контроля поля fragile ~ вчт. недолговечная программа function ~ вчт. код режима работы highway ~ правила дорожного движения ID codeidentification ~ идентификационный код identity ~ личный код illegal ~ вчт. запрещенный код illegal ~ вчт. нелегальная программа input ~ вчт. входной код instruction ~ вчт. код команды instruction ~ вчт. набор команд instruction ~ вчт. система команд instruction ~ вчт. состав команд interlock ~ вчт. код блокировки internal ~ вчт. внутренний код interpretive ~ вчт. интерпретируемый код interrupt ~ вчт. код прерывания inverse ~ вчт. обратный код line-feed ~ вчт. код протяжки lock ~ вчт. замок lock ~ вчт. код защиты lock ~s вчт. замки machine ~ вчт. машинный код machine-instruction ~ вчт. система команд machine-operation ~ вчт. система команд machine-readable ~ вчт. машинночитаемый код magnetic tape ~ вчт. код магнитной ленты maritime ~ кодекс торгового мореплавания maritime ~ морской кодекс message ~ вчт. код сообщения micro ~ вчт. микрокоманда micro ~ вчт. микропрограмма minimum-access ~ вчт. программирование с минимизацией задержки mnemonic ~ вчт. мнемокод modular ~ вчт. модульная программа modulation ~ вчт. модулирующий код ~ код;
Morse code азбука (или код) Морзе Morse: Morse разг. см. Morse code, Morse telegraph Morse: Morse: ~ code, ~ alphabet азбука Морзе;
Morse telegraph телеграф Морзе multiple-address ~ вчт. код многоадресной команды name ~ вчт. именной код natural binary ~ вчт. обычный двоичный код noise combating ~ вчт. помехоустойчивый код nonexistence ~ вчт. контроль запрещенных комбинаций nonexistent ~ вчт. запрещенный код nonexistent ~ вчт. непредусмотренный код nonexistent ~ вчт. несуществующий код nonreproducing ~ вчт. непечатаемый код number address ~ вчт. код адреса числа number ~ вчт. код числа numeric ~ вчт. цифровой код numeric ~ вчт. числовой код object ~ вчт. выходная программа object ~ вчт. объектный код one-address ~ вчт. код одноадресной команды one-level ~ вчт. абсолютный код operand ~ вчт. код операнда operation ~ вчт. код операции optimized ~ вчт. оптимизированная программа output ~ вчт. выходной код own ~ вчт. собственная подпрограмма paired-disparity ~ вчт. попарно-сбалансировый код parity-check ~ вчт. код с контролем четности penal ~ уголовный кодекс pointer-threaded ~ вчт. шитый код polynomial ~ вчт. полиномиальный код position ~ вчт. позиционный код position-independent ~ вчт. непозиционный код positional ~ вчт. позиционный код post ~ почтовый индекс postal ~ почтовый индекс prefix ~ вчт. префиксный код print restore ~ вчт. код возобновления печати procedural ~ процессуальный кодекс product ~ вчт. композиционный код pulse ~ вчт. импульсный код punched tape ~ вчт. код перфоленты pure ~ вчт. чистый код recurrent ~ вчт. циклический код redundant ~ вчт. избыточный код reenterable ~ вчт. повторно входимая программа reentrant ~ вчт. повторно входимая программа reflected ~ вчт. циклический код relative ~ вчт. программа в относительных адресах relocatable ~ вчт. перемещаемая программа repertory ~ вчт. набор команд reserved ~ вчт. зарезервированная команда retrieval ~ вчт. код поиска retrieval ~ вчт. поисковый ключ return ~ вчт. код возврата routing ~ вчт. код маршрута row-binary ~ вчт. построчный двоичный код safety ~ вчт. безопасный код sectoral grouping ~ код распределения населения по социально-экономическому положению self-checking ~ вчт. код с обнаружением ошибок self-correcting ~ вчт. само-корректирующийся код serial ~ вчт. последовательный код seven bit ~ вчт. семиразрядный код severity ~ вчт. код серьезности ошибки short ~ вчт. сокращенный код sign ~ вчт. код знака single-address ~ вчт. код одноадресной команды skeletal ~ вчт. план программы skip ~ вчт. код пропуска source ~ вчт. исходный код source ~ comp. исходный код source ~ вчт. исходный текст space ~ вчт. код интервала space ~ вчт. код пробела spaghetti ~ вчт. неструктурная программа specific ~ вчт. абсолютный код state ~ вчт. код состояния status ~ вчт. код состояния status ~ comp. код состояния stop ~ вчт. код останова straight-line ~ вчт. программа без циклов strait binary ~ вчт. обычный двоичный код strip ~ вчт. штриховой код symbol ~ вчт. код символа symbolic ~ вчт. псевдокод tape ~ вчт. код ленты task ~ вчт. код задачи telecommunication ~ вчт. код для телесвязи termination ~ вчт. код завершения ternary ~ вчт. троичный код threaded ~ вчт. шитый код throw-away ~ вчт. технологическая программа trace back ~ вчт. код обратного пути transaction ~ вчт. код транзакции transaction ~s вчт. коды транзакции transmission ~ вчт. код передачи transmitter-start ~ вчт. стартовый код трансмиттера unit-distance ~ вчт. код с одиночным расстоянием unitary ~ вчт. унитарный код universal product ~ универсальный товарный код unused ~ вчт. запрещенный код unused ~ вчт. неиспользуемый код user identification ~ вчт. код пользователя zip ~ почтовый индекс zip: ~ code амер. почтовый индекс zone ~ вчт. код зоны -
19 Philosophy
And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive ScienceIn the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)10) The Distinction between Dionysian Man and Apollonian Man, between Art and Creativity and Reason and Self- ControlIn his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy
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20 group
1) группа, ансамбль || групповой- roughing mill group2) совокупность; комплект3) группировка || группировать(ся)5) класс; категория || классифицировать; категоризировать6) хим. остаток7) сгусток; скопление8) узел9) матем. группа- absolute free group - absolute homotopy group - absolutely irreducible group - absolutely simple group - additively written group - adele group - adelic group - algebraically compact group - algebraically simple group - almost connected group - almost cyclic group - almost ordered group - almost periodic group - almost simple group - alternating form group - cancellative group - cellular homology group - characteristically simple group - complementing group - completely anisotropic group - completely discontinuous group - completely divisible group - completely indecomposable group - completely integrally closed group - deficient group - direct homology group - direct indecomposable group - doubly transitive group - finitely defined group - finitely generated group - finitely presented group - finitely related group - first homology group - first homotopy group - freely generated group - full linear group - full orthogonal group - full rotation group - full symmetric group - full unimodular group - group of classes of algebras - group of covering transformations - group of finite rank - group of infinite order - group of infinite rank - group of inner automorphisms - group of linear equivalence - group of linear forms - group of linear manifold - group of principal ideles - group of real line - group of recursive permutations - group of right quotients - idele class group - linearly ordered group - linearly transitive group - locally bicompact group - locally closed group - locally compact group - locally connected group - locally cyclic group - locally defined group - locally embeddable group - locally finite group - locally free group - locally infinite group - locally nilpotent group - locally normal group - locally solvable group - multiply primitive group - multiply transitive group - nonsolvable group - n-th homotopy group - ordered pair group - principal congruence group - properly orthogonal group - properly unimodular group - pure projective group - pure rotation group - pure simple group - quasipure projective group - quotient divisible group - residually nilpotent group - restricted holonomy group - sharply transitive group - simply ordered group - simply reducible group - simply transitive group - singular cogomology group - singular homology group - solvable group - stable group - strictly transitive group - strongly polycyclic group - subsolvable group - supersolvable group - totally ordered group - totally projective group - totally reducible group - triply transitive group - unitary symmetry group - unitary transformation group - value group - weak homology group - weakly mixing groupgroup with multiple operators — группа с многоместными операторами, мультиоператорная группа
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